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bigoil438's InsaneJournal:
- constant or periodical burning of associated gas and excessive amounts of hydrocarbons during well testing and development as well as continuous flaring to eliminate gas from the storage tanks and pressure-controlling systems;
- combustion of gaseous and liquid fuel in the energetic units (diesel-powered generators and pumps, gas turbines, internal combustion engines) on the platforms, ships, and onshore facilities; and
- evaporation or venting of hydrocarbons during different operations of their production, treatment, transportation, and storage.
| Wednesday, December 24th, 2008 | |
| 3:50 pm | Offshore Oil Pollution Discharges Practically all stages and operations of offshore hydrocarbon production are accompanied by undesirable discharges of liquid, solid, and gaseous wastes. The proportions and amounts of discharged wastes can change considerably during production. For example, the amount of solid drilling cuttings usually decreases as the well gets deeper and the hole diameter becomes correspondingly smaller. The volumes of produced waters increase as the hydrocarbon resources are being depleted and production moves from the first stages toward its completion. The discharges of produced waters considerably dominate over other wastes. Produced waters include formation water, brine, injection water, and other technological waters. Formation water and brine are extracted along with oil and gas. Injection water is pumped into the injection wells in hundreds of thousands of tons for maintaining the pressure in the system and pushing the hydrocarbons toward the producing wells. Produced waters, including injection waters and solutions of chemicals used to intensify hydrocarbon extraction and the separation of the oil-water mixtures, are one of the main sources of oil pollution in the areas of offshore oil and gas production. It is significant that, as a hydrocarbon reservoir is being depleted, the ratio between the water and oil fraction in the extracted product increases, and water becomes the prevailing phase. At the same time, both the volumes of discharged waters and the difficulties of their treatment increase. Inevitably, all kinds of drilling are associated with drilling wastes, including drilling muds and cuttings. Drilling cuttings are removed from drilling muds and cleaned in special separators. The amount of oil left on cuttings after cleaning is much higher when using oil-based fluids. The environmental hazard of drilling muds is connected, in particular, with the presence of lubricating materials in their composition. These lubricating substances usually have a hydrocarbon base. They are needed for effective drilling, especially in case of slant holes or drilling through solid rock. The lubricants are added into the drilling fluids either from the very beginning as a part of the original formulations or in the process of drilling when the operational need emerges. In both cases, the discharges of spent drilling muds and cuttings coated by these muds contain considerable amounts of relatively stable and toxic hydrocarbon compounds and a wide spectrum of many other substances. One of the potential sources of oil pollution is produced sand extracted with oil. The amount of produced sand coated by oil can vary a lot in different areas and even during production in the same area. In some cases, it constitutes a considerable part of the extracted product. Most often, this sand is cleaned of the oil and dumped overboard at the well site. Sometimes, it is baked or calcified and transported to the shore. Other discharges into the marine environment are deck drainage, sanitary wastes and domestic wastes. Chemical composition of discharged wastes As noted earlier, the spectrum of chemicals entering the marine environment at different stages of oil and gas production is very wide. They include many hundreds of individual compounds and their combinations. Broadly speaking, all can be divided into two large groups. The first group consists of the extracted oil and gas hydrocarbons, which the following chapters will discuss in detail. The second group, which this section will review, unites the rest of the natural and technological components used at different technological stages. Drilling fluids and cuttings. Drilling cuttings separated from drilling muds have a complex and extremely changeable composition. This composition depends on the type of rock, drilling regime, formulation of the drilling fluid, technology to separate and clean cuttings, and other factors. However, in all cases, drilling fluids (muds) play the leading role in forming the composition of drilling cuttings. No precise, standard formulation exists for drilling fluids. Their composition depends on the needs of the particular situations. These differ considerably in different regions and may even radically change during each drilling process while drilling rocks of very different structure (from solid granite formations to salt and slate strata). At present, two main types of drilling fluids are used in offshore drilling. They are based either on crude oil, oil products, and other mixtures of organic substances (diesel, paraffin oils, and so on) or on water (freshwater or seawater with bentonite, barite, and other components added). Originally, the oil-based drilling muds included diesel fuel as their base component due to its availability and low cost. However, starting in the 1980s, especially after many countries prohibited the use of diesel in drilling muds, the oil companies started to develop new formulations that replaced diesel oil with less hazardous substances. Alternative drilling fluids are composed mainly from low-molecular-weight, less toxic and more water-soluble, aromatic compounds and substances of paraffin structure. Research in this direction continues at present. Products of animal, vegetable, or synthetic origin are tested in order to find the optimal base for drilling fluids. Produced waters.Produced waters usually include dissolved salts and organic compounds, oil hydrocarbons, trace metals, suspensions, and many other substances that are components of formation water from the reservoir or are used during drilling and other production operations. Besides, produced waters can mix with the extracted oil, gas, and injection waters from the wells. All of the above make the composition of the discharged produced waters very complex and changeable. It is practically impossible to speak about some average parameters of this composition, especially because reliable and complete analytical studies of these wastes are very rare. Petroleum hydrocarbons are always present in produced waters, especially when the latter are mixed with other technological waters and solutions. However, the levels of oil in discharges vary extremely. They depend not only on the specific technological situation but on the fractional composition of the oil and the effectiveness of the oil/water separation methods as well. . Another characteristic of the chemical composition of most produced waters is their very high mineralization. It is usually higher than the seawater's salinity reaching up to 300 g/l. Such mineralization is caused by the presence of dissolved ions of sodium, potassium, magnesium, chloride, and sulfate in produced waters. Besides, produced waters often have elevated levels of some heavy metals [Neff et al., 1987] as well as corrosion inhibitors, descalers, biocides, dispersants, emulsion breakers, and other chemicals. Recent studies have revealed that produced waters frequently contain naturally occurring radioactive elements and their daughter products, such as radium-226 and radium-228. They are leached from the reservoir by formation waters and are carried to the surface with produced waters, oil, and gas. During contact with seawater, these radionuclides interact with sulfates, precipitate, and form a radioactive scale. In spite of a relatively low level of radioactivity, concern exists that this process can create centers of increased radioactive risk. This phenomenon has become a focus of attention in a number of countries. Applying the regulations defined by some international agreements, such as the London Dumping Convention (1972), that do not allow discharges of radioactive material into the marine environment are considered to be justified in this case [GESAMP, 1993]. Other wastes. Large quantities of produced waters, drilling muds, and drilling cuttings, discussed above, as well as discharges of storage displacement and ballast waters are the source of regular and long-term impacts of the offshore industry on the marine environment. Besides these discharges, sometimes the need arises to conduct a one-time discharge of short duration. Such situations include, in particular, chemical discharges during construction, hydrostatic testing, commissioning, pigging, and maintenance of the pipeline systems. The pipeline discharges usually contain corrosion and scale inhibitors, biocides, oxygen scavengers, and other agents. The volumes of these wastes can be rather considerable. Similar situations emerge during other technological and maintenance activities. Examples include cleaning and anticorrosion procedures, discharging the ballast waters from the hydrocarbon storage tanks, well repairing, well workover operations, replacing the equipment, and others. These discharges often contain surface-active substances, such as lignosulfonates, lignites, sulfo-methylated tannins, and many other chemicals with about a hundred names. Atmospheric emissions Although the atmospheric emissions accompany most of the oil and gas operations, this factor has not gained any special attention in the context of offshore developments. The available information is very limited and controversial. At the same time, in some areas of onland production, for example in Western Siberia and near Astrakhan in Russia, this source of pollution poses a serious threat to the water and onland ecosystems and to human health. For example, in the Nizhnevartovki region (Tumen area), the atmospheric emission of hazardous substances from the Samotlorskoe oil field development in 1989-1992 varied from 0.38 million to 1.1 million tons a year [Krupinin, 1995]. The high content of hydrogen sulfide (6-30%) and other toxic substances in the natural gas and atmospheric emissions on the Orenburgskoe and Astrakhanskoe gas condensate fields created situations close to ecological catastrophes [Karamova, 1989]. Atmospheric emissions take place at all stages of oil and gas industry's activities. The main sources of these emissions include: In spite of the fact that some countries now prohibit flaring of oil-associated gases, it remains one of the major sources of atmospheric emissions in the world. These gases are dissolved in the crude produced oil. As the pressure goes down, they bubble out in amounts up to 300 m3 for each ton of extracted oil. The associated gases give about 30% of the gross world production of gaseous hydrocarbons. However, because of the undeveloped technology and lack of required capacities and equipment on many field developments, up to 25% of all associated gases are flared. In Russia alone, the volumes of annually burned (flared) oil-associated gases reach up to 10-17 billion cubic meters [VNIIP, 1994]. Components of atmospheric pollution caused by oil and gas development include gaseous products of hydrocarbon evaporation and burning as well as aerosol particles of the unburned fuel. From the ecological perspective, the most hazardous components are nitrogen and sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, and the products of the incomplete burning of hydrocarbons. These interact with atmospheric moisture, transform under the influence of solar radiation, and precipitate onto the land and sea surfaces to form fields of local and regional pollution. Clear evidence of the impact of atmospheric emissions on the marine environment from the offshore flaring was found, in particular, during well testing in the Canadian zone of the Beaufort Sea. Here, the ice surface around the test site where intensive flaring of combustible wastes occurred was polluted by atmospheric fallout of heavy oily residue. The chemical composition of the residue was similar to one of the higher-molecular-weight fractions of produced oil [GESAMP, 1993]. According to some estimates [Kingston, 1991], up to 30% of the hydrocarbons emitted into the atmosphere during well testing precipitate onto the sea surface and create distinctive and relatively unstable slicks around the offshore installations. The results of the aircraft observations in the North Sea indicate that such slicks are found with an average frequency of 1-2 cases per every hour of flight [ICES, 1995]. Technical means to rectify and prevent atmospheric pollution during offshore oil and gas production are practically identical to the analogous methods that are widely and often effectively used on land and in other industries. However, offshore atmospheric emissions thus far have not gotten the deserved attention, probably due to the remoteness of these developments from densely populated places. ~Sustainable Technology TRAINING for WOMEN http://sarahteach.livejournal.com/2 http://vegcar.livejournal.com http://www.electric-cars-are-for-gi http://www.electric-cars-are-for-gi book: Unlocking the Secrets to Living Your Dreams; by Jack Canfield book: Positive Imaging, The Powerful Way to Change Your Life; by Norman Vincent Peale SolFocus Aims to Beat Coal with Solar Concentrators http://air302.livejournal.com SOLAR Heated SWIMMING POOL, Spa, Hot Tub http://www.fafco.com http://www.solargenix.com http://www.canadiansolartechnologie ` HEATPUMP Heated SWIMMING POOL, Spa, Hot Tub http://heatpump301.livejournal.com Eat LOCAL Organc Foods save energy http://www.localharvest.org http://www.organicconsumers.org http://www.greenpeople.org http://www.eatwellguide.org http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/localfo http://www.biodynamics.com http://www.coopamerica.org http://www.localsustainability.net http://livabilityproject.org http://www.sustainabletable.org http://foodchoice.livejournal.com http://www.startnow.org http://www.harvestcanada.com Proverb: Good Food is Good Medicine. <> Garbage in, garbage out. 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The military claims the Wind Farms are a threat to national security. Maybe the Wind Farms are a threat to Big Oil and Big Coal? HOW STUPID ARE AMERICANS? http://pickensplan101.livejournal.c FOSSIL FUEL ECONOMIC DISASTER http://ovl.indymedia.org/news/2008/06/2 http://argentina.indymedia.org/news/200 ~ book: Tyranny of Oil; by Antonia Juhasz book: Halliburton Agenda - The Politics of Oil and Moneyl; by Dan Briody book: Cronies - Oil, the Bushes, and the Rise of Texas; by Dan Briody book: Confessions of an Economic Hit Man; by John Perkins book: Economic Gangsters; Ray Fisman book: Sound Truth and Corporate Myth - The Legacy of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill; by Riki Ott book: Poisoned Wells - The Dirty Politics Of African Oil; by Leandre Poisson book: Justice Under Siege; by Eva Joly book: Texas Oil and the New Deal; by Steve Isser book: Corruption In Iraq & World; by Vance Jochim book: Teapot Dome Scandal: How Big Oil Bought the Harding White House and Tried to Steal the Country; by Laton Mccartney book: Untapped - The Scramble for Africa's Oil; by John Ghazvinian book: Eating Fossil Fuel - Oil, Food and the Coming Crisis in Agriculture; by Dale Allen Pfeiffe book: Blood and Oil; by Michael Klare book: Backstabbing for Beginners; by Michael Soussan book: A Culture of Corruption; by Daniel Jordan Smith book: THE RISE, CORRUPTION AND COMING FALL OF THE HOUSE OF SAUD; by Said K. Aburish book: Greed and corruption in the Caspian; by Derek Brower book: Corporate Corruption - The Abuse of Power; by Marshall B. Clinard report: All the Presidents’ Men - The Devastating Story of Oil and Banking in Angola’s Privatised War; by Global Witness book: Curse of the Black Gold - 50 Years of Oil in the Niger Delta; by Michael Watts book: Crude - The Story of Oil; by Sonia Shah book: Where Vultures Feast: Shell, Human Rights and Oil; by Ike Okonta book: The Prize - The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power; by Daniel Yergin book: A Game as Old as Empire - The Secret World of Economic Hit Men and the Web of Global Corruption; by Steven Hiatt book: Blood Bankers; by James S. Henry book: Grand Theft Pentagon - Tales of Corruption and Profiteering in the War on Terror; by Jeffrey St. Clair book: Oil and the Glory - The Pursuit of Empire and Fortune on the Caspian Sea; by Steve LeVine book: Indonesian Production Sharing Contract, an investor's perspective; by T. N. Machmud book: Grand corruption in the regulation of oil; by Tina Soreide book: Oil on the Brain; by Lisa Margonelli book: Many Faces of Corruption; by J. Edgardo Campos http://www.thebushagenda.net Pure, clean air is the invisible staff of life. Smog is the invisible staff of death. book: Super Power Breathing for Super Energy and Longevity; by Patricia Bragg Does Big OIL or Big COAL have a Body BAG with your CHILD'S Name on it? http://vegcar.livejournal.com/24663.htm http://air301.livejournal.com http://air309.livejournal.com book: Big Coal, The Dirty Secret; by Jeff Goodell OIL - GAS REFINERIES = DIRTY AIR & DEATH http://www.refineryreform.org GENERAL MOTORS and the NAZIS War Profits at any cost - Auschwitz - Death Camps - Slave Labor Is there any difference between the Neo Nazis and the American Neo Conservatives? ARE YOU DRIVING A GM HITLER CAR? DVD: Who Killed the Electric Car? http://www.amazon.com/Who-Killed-Electr http://vegcar.livejournal.com/24209.htm book: Internal Combustion; by Edwin Black http://www.internalcombustionbook.c WHY DID GENERAL MOTORS DESTROY ELECTRIC CARS http://www.saveev1.org http://www.dontcrush.com NAZIS in the AMERICAN MILITARY Defense Fund for Freedom from the Extremist - please donate. Keep the Nuts away from the Nukes - Book of Revelation. George Bush and the End of the World Death Cult society of america - KKK http://bigoil600036.insanejournal.c http://www.militaryreligiousfreedom.o CRIMES AGAINST NATURE DICK CHENEY Made Millions with SADDAM HUSSEIN Enemies of Democracy http://bigoil431.insanejournal.com SHOCKING CORRUPTION by BIG OIL http://bigoil101.insanejournal.com DO WE HAVE TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION? Are your politicians taking Bribes - campaign contributions - from Big Oil and the Drug Companies? Is your Congressman a Drug Pusher for the Pharmaceutical Companies? Halt the incestuous relationship of sleazy politicians in bed with Big Oil. CAMPAIGN FINANCE INFORMATION CENTER Where does the money come from? http://www.campaignfinance.org/stat CENTER FOR PUBLIC INTEGRITY stop the Fat Cats from BRIBING your politicians http://www.publicintegrity.org DVD: Capitol Crimes by Bill Moyers The fall of super-lobbyist Jack Abramoff has exposed what may be one of the biggest political scandals in America's history. What does the dizzying scope of corruption say about how laws are made and who really owns the U.S. government? 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IS GOD GREEN? http://solarafrica307.livejournal.c `  ~ POLLUTION and RACISM, INJUSTICE book: Confronting Environmental Racism; by Robert Bullard book: Environmental Injustices; by David Camacho book: Environmentalism and Economic Justice; by Laura Pulido book: Pollution and the Death of Man; by Francis Schaeffer book: From the Ground Up, Environmental Racism; by Luke Cole book: Struggle for Ecological Democracy; by Daniel Faber book: No Safe Place, Toxic Waste and Community Action; by Phil Brown Bush slams Christians, Bunch of NUTS http://bigoil600037.insanejournal.c book: Tempting Faith: An Inside Story of Political Seduction; author: David Kuo Republican Child Molesters and Pedophiles http://bigoil600039.insanejournal.c Homosexuals for Republicans & George Bush http://bigoil600038.insanejournal.c WINE INDUSTRY ANNIHILATED by GLOBAL WARMING http://www.ukfreepages.co.uk/publish/pa Global Warming Destroys Maple Sugar Industry STOP CLIMATE CHAOS and the DESTRUCTION of the POOR http://www.itdg.org/?id=stopclimatechao http://campaigncc.org http://stopclimatechaos.org BIG OIL MAIN PAGE http://bigoil101.insanejournal.com GENERAL LINKS http://vegcar.livejournal.com/25537.htm ~ Proverb: A good person leaves an inheritance to their children’s children. What kind of inheritance are you leaving? ~  ` book: Miracle of Tithing; by Mark Victor Hansen http://tithing101.livejournal.com book: You Can If You Think You Can; by Norman Vincent Peale You never really lose until you quit trying. Mike Ditka NFL Football Coach DVD: Facing the Giants; director: Alex Kendrick BOLD SPIRIT http://bolderspirit.livejournal.com ~ I CAN DO (be) all things thru God who strengthens me. ~ Where there is no way, God can make a way. ~ With God all things are possible. ~ Whatever things you so desire, when you pray, believe that you receive them, and you shall have them. ~ The everlasting God, the Lord, the Creator of the ends of the earth, neither faints nor is weary. He gives power to the weak. To those who have no might, He increases their strength. To those who wait on the Lord, He shall Renew their strength. They shall mount up with wings like eagles. They shall run and not be weary. 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